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Ultra-high-pressure UHP waterjets- jets of water fired at extremely high pressure- can cut almost any material, including metal. An advantage of UHP waterjet cutting is that the edge quality of workpieces is high- that is, the cut edges are smooth. This means that no secondary operations- further processes to smooth rough edges- are required. Also, because UHP waterjets are cold, they do not leave a heat-affected zone HAZ on the workpiece- that is, an area near the cut edge whose properties have been changed by heat.
You wiU need to use some of the descriptions more than once. This torch burns C 2 H 2 in This machine is used for The torch can be used for It produces workpieces with very smooth Because of this high Say why the cutting technique would be especially suitable for the component and for the material.
The pictures below show an example: a connection or joint between a steel column and a concrete foundation. The foundation supports the column, preventing downward movement. As well as providing support, it anchors the column, holding it in position to stop it sliding or lifting. To provide a connection, bolts are attached to a plate at the bottom of the column- called a base plate. The bottoms of the bolts are embedded in the concrete of the foundation - that is, they are surrounded and held by the concrete.
The holes allow the tops of the bolts to have a certain amount of play - that is, they are free to move slightly. This means the bolts can be adjusted moved as required to allow the bolts to slot through the holes in the base plate, so that the plate and bolts can fit together. As the column is lowered into position, wedges enable steel wedges are placed below the base column to be plate.
These act as packers also called plumbed spacers or shims , and leave a gap narrow space between the plate and the concrete. The wedges also enable adjustments to be made. By hammering a wedge horizontally, the side of the base plate can be lifted, allowing the column to be plumbed made exactly vertical.
A type of cement, called grout, is then placed beneath the base plate. This fills the gap between the base plate and the ped holes foundation, and the holes around the bolts. It also seals the joint against rainwater, -concrete foundation protecting the bolts from corrosion.
Photo 1 Photo 2 Photo 1 shows a suspension bridge. The bridge's two main cables are The cables are Photo 2 shows a The suspender cables are The saddle is made up of two parts that are fixed The many wires which make up the main cable are covered by a protective layer of very thin wire that is wrapped around the main cable in the form of a helix the shape of a spring.
J Mechanical fasteners 1 -Bolts The photo below shows a common fastener or fixing : a bolt, with a nut. Bolts have threads -grooves on the outside of the bolt's shaft or shank , which run around the shaft in a helical pattern. The threaded shaft allows a nut, which has a thread inside it, to be screwed onto the bolt by a turning motion.
Nuts usually have a right-hand thread - they are screwed on by turning them clockwise in the direction of clock hands and unscrewed by turning them anticlockwise. However, in some situations, left-hand threads are used. Most bolts have heads with hexagonal perimeters hexagonal heads or hex heads. These allow a spanner to turn them. Heads can also have a hexagonal hole in their top, called a socket head. This allows a hex key or Allen key to fit into them.
BrE: spanner; ArnE: wrench - Preload in bolted joints Turning force, called torque, is applied to bolts to tighten them- that is, to make them grip tightly. As a bolt is tightened, the tension stretching force in its shaft increases, and the components being bolted together are pressed tightly together. This pressing force is called preload or clamp load. If enough preload is applied, friction between the components will prevent them sliding in different directions.
This is an advantage, as sliding subjects the sides of bolts to shear force scissoring force , which can cause them to break. In steel structures, bolts that apply high preloads to prevent sliding are called high strength friction grip HSFG bolts.
The amount of torque applied to bolts can be adjusted using a torque wrench, a tool which can tighten and loosen bolts, and which indicates how much torque is applied. This helps to ensure that bolts are tightened enough, but not over-tightened. Torque wrenches are also useful for checking that bolted joints do not work loose - that is, that they do not become loose over time.
Note: See Unit 31 for more on torque, tension, shear and other forces. Ordinary fla t washer washers- called flat washers or plain washers- have a larger outside diameter than the bolt head or nut.
Their wider area is intended to spread the load distribute pressure over the surface of the component as the bolt is tightened. A helica l Spring washers are designed to be compressed, to allow the spring washer amount of preload to be adjusted as the bolt is tightened. In some situations, spring washers are used to allow a bolt to move slightly, in order to absorb shocks. Common types of spring washer are helical spring washers and conical A con ical spring washers.
However, that does not mean to say, 'the tighter the better'. If excessive force is used to At this point, various problems can occur. The shank may begin to twist as it is subjected to additional Alternatively, as the bolt is stretched due to increasing This will not only make it impossible to subsequently tighten and What is their purpose?
They may be screwed into a predrilled hole- drilled for the screw to enter. Self-tapping screws do not require predrilled holes. They cut their own hole as they are screwed in. Unlike bolts, screws are not used with nuts and- generally- are not screwed into threaded holes. Most screw heads are designed to be screwed in using a screwdriver. The most common types are slot head screws and crosshead screws.
A screwdriver A slot head screw A crosshead screw, A crosshead screw, Phillips type Pozidriv type Small-diameter bolts, which can be used with nuts or screwed into threaded holes, are sometimes called machine screws. Bolts that hold components in place by pressing the end of the bolt against the component, in order to generate friction and prevent sliding, are called set screws or grub screws.
Examples of uses are holding a wheel on a shaft, and connecting electric wires. These fit into predrilled holes. A simple screw anchor is a plastic tube called a wall plug or plug. It is inserted in a hole, and a screw or bolt is then screwed into it. As it enters the plug, the plug expands its diameter increases.
This increases friction, allowing the plug to resist pullout forces- the forces which would cause it to be pulled out of the hole if it were not firmly anchored.
An expansion anchor is another type of anchor. It consists of a bolt fitted inside a metal sleeve. The sleeve expands as the bolt is tightened in the hole. In cases where pullout forces are very high, chemical anchors can be used. These are studs- threaded bars, onto which nuts can be screwed. The studs are set in - that is, held in the hole by an adhesive.
Most chemical anchors are set into holes using a strong adhesive called epoxy resin see Unit 29 for more on adhesives. A solid rivet consists of a short, solid shaft of metal with a head at one end, called the factory head. The rivet is inserted through a pre-drilled hole, then a special tool is used to deform change the shape of the other end of the rivet, flattening and widening it to form a second head, called the shop head.
Solid rivets are widely used in aircraft. Blind rivets or pop rivets are made from hollow tubes, and are fitted using a tool called a rivet gun. Blind rivets are not suitable for high-strength joints. Then match the combinations with the descriptions below. One description can be used twice.
You've tried drilling the specified hole size many times in the past, only for it to be too big, leaving the You decide it's better to ensure a tight fit So you drill a smaller hole than suggested, then attempt to hammer in the plug. It bends sideways, useless. You try again. And again. Eventually, you manage to get a plug into the hole. You insert the end of the screw, pick up your It certainly is a tight fit. And hard work.
And as the screw goes in, and the plug starts to By the time the screw's halfway in, the screwdriver has slipped off the screw so many times that what used to be a S It's impossible to screw it in any further. Or unscrew it. So you take a pair of pliers, grip the end of the screw, and attempt to drag the whole thing out of the walL But the The screw might as well be Say what types of screw are used, and suggest why each type was specified.
Professional English in Use Engineering The heat melts the edges of the components being welded together, and once the material has become molten liquid , fusion occurs.
When the joint fuses, material from each component is mixed together, joining to form a solid weld. Metal is often welded. It is also possible to weld plastic. Welding is usually used to join components of the same base metal- that is, the metal the components are made of.
It is possible - though more difficult - to weld certain dissimilar materials. For example, copper can be welded to steel.
Often, a filler is added during welding. This is new material, of the same type as the base metal, which is melted into the weld pool - the molten metal at the joint during welding. One problem in welding is discontinuity, where joints are not completely solid. Another problem is residual stress.
This is force- for example, tension- which is 'trapped' around the joint. This problem occurs after welding, as a result of contraction in the weld zone or fusion zone -the area that was the weld pool. It can also occur in the heat-affected zone HAZ -the material close to the weld pool which was subjected to high temperature, and was modified by the heat.
The heat from the arc melts the base metal. The electrode consists of a welding rod - a stick of metal of the same type as the workpiece - which provides filler. The welding rod is therefore consumable -it is used up.
The rod is also coated with a material called flux. When heated, this produces a shielding gas, which protects the molten metal from oxygen. Without this gas, the hot metal would combine with the oxygen in the air, and this would weaken the weld. Shielded metal arc welding In gas welding, heat comes from a torch which burns oxyfuel - a mixture of oxygen 0 2 and a gas fuel.
The most common fuel is acetylene C2H2 - called oxyacetylene when mixed with oxygen. Welding rods provide filler but flux is not required, as the burning oxyfuel produces carbon dioxide C02 which acts as a shielding gas. The wire acts as a consumable electrode, supplying filler. A shielding gas, often argon Ar , is blown onto the weld pool. However, the tungsten is non-consumable -it does not melt, and is not consumed as filler during the welding process.
A separate welding rod is used to supply filler, if required. As with MIG welding, a shielding gas such as argon is blown onto the weld. You will need to use some words twice. For instance, steel can be welded to copper and to brass. However, it is much more difficult to weld components made oftwo While there is no difficu lty in melting two different metals and mixing them together in a As this process takes place, the two metals will not necessari ly Once the joint has cooled, this can result in In addition, as the metals contract at different rates due to different coefficients of thermal expansion , powerful You will need to use some parts more than once.
Shielded metal arc welding uses 2 Gas welding uses 3 Gas metal arc welding uses 4 Gas tungsten arc welding uses a burning gas. In what specific situations are different techniques used, and why are they suitable?
I Non-mechanical joints 2 - Specialized welding techniques The web page below, from a technical guide to welding techniques, explains some more specialized welding methods. Resistance welding involves passing an electric current through metal components that are touching. This heats the metal and welds it. The technique can be used for spot welding - welding a number of small points between the surfaces of the components.
It can also be used for seam welding, to make long, narrow welds. Ultrasonic welding uses high-frequency acoustic vibrations sound vibrations to make the touching surfaces of two components vibrate.
This generates friction, heating them and fusing them. The technique is often used to weld plastics. Unlike welding, the base metal of the components is not melted, so the components are not fused. Brazed joints are therefore not as strong as welded joints. For some pipe joints and for electrical connections, soldering is often used. Solder is a metal filler which melts at quite a low temperature. Like brazing, soldering forms joints without melting the base metal.
Soldered joints are therefore weaker than welds, and also generally weaker than brazed joints. In soft soldering, an alloy- of tin Sn and lead Ph , or of tin and copper- is melted using an electrically heated rod called a soldering iron. In hard soldering, a solder containing copper and silver Ag produces slightly stronger joints. The higher melting point of silver means a flame - usually from an oxyfuel torch - is used instead of a soldering iron.
Soft soldering -Adhesives Adhesive - called glue in everyday language -can be used to bond permanently join components together. Its purpose is to adhere to the surfaces being joined, to create a bond between them.
Most adhesives are liquids, which can be applied to put on the surfaces that need to be glued together. Adhesives can create adhesion between surfaces in two main ways. One is by allowing wet adhesive to be absorbed by the components. After drying and hardening, this forms a mechanical bond, as adhesive is anchored into each component's substrate the material below the surface. Adhesion may also be created by a chemical bond, from a chemical reaction between the adhesive and the materials.
Many types of adhesive harden by drying. They contain a solvent- water or a liquid chemical -which gives a workable mixture. After the adhesive has been applied, the solvent evaporates - turns from a liquid to a gas - to leave solid adhesive. An example of this type is polyvinyl adhesive PVA , a wood glue. Other types, such as epoxy resins see Unit 14 , are two-part adhesives, supplied as separate chemicals in two containers.
When mixed and applied, the two parts react, then cure- harden due to a chemical reaction. Contact adhesives must be applied to both components, then left to dry for a time before the surfaces are brought together. A bond then occurs when the surfaces touch. Use language from C opposite to explain how the adhesives are used, and how they work.
In engineering, forces are called loads. Usually, several different loads will act on - app ly fo rce to - the components in a machine, or the members parts of a structure. A component or member which is des igned to carry or bear a load is call ed a load-bearing component or member. To predict what will happen when components are loaded, engineers calculate the magnitude size of each load, and also work out the direction of the load -for example, vertically downwards. Load is therefore a vector quantity or vector - that is, a measurement with both a magnitude and a direction.
This is different to a scalar qu antity, which has a magnitude only. Note: See Appendi x Von page for more on types of load. In a test, a thick cable is used to pick up a heavy object. The cable stretches slightly, but lifts the weight.
A second test is done using a thinner cable- one with only half the cross-sectional area of the thick cable. This time, the cable stretches, then breaks. Why did the thinner cable fail? Not due to a higher load, as the weight was the same.
The failure was due to stress. Why did the thick cable stretch but not break? When objects are stressed, they deform -that is, they change size if only slightly.
In the tests, the cable extended- it increased in length. Extension can be measured as a change in an object's length compared with its original length before stress was applied. This measurement is called strain. According to a law called Young's Modulus of Elasticity, stress is proportional to strain. In other words, a percentage increase in stress will cause the same percentage increase in strain.
However, th is is only true up to a point called the limit of Small lengths of material, called specimens, can be stressed in a proportionality. If a materia l is overstressed- materials testing machine to measure beyond this limit - it will start to become strained strain and test their strength.
Stress and strain will therefore become disproportional. Note: See Unit 18 fo r more on elasticity and th e limit of pro portion ality. If you look at the objects around you, it's difficult to find something that couldn't be smashed with a hammer. But if you laid a hammer down carefully on any of those objects, the 1 force which it 2 put on them wouldn't be sufficient to cause even the slightest damage. Between the two situations, the 7 size of the load 8 placed on the surface is dramatically different.
The above comparison illustrates another difference in the way surfaces are 9 pressured. When a hammer is laid horizontally on a surface, its weight is spread over a relatively large area. It therefore applies a 1 0 spread out force. By contrast, when a hammer hits something, only the edge of the hammer head comes into contact with the surface.
The force is therefore 11 focused in a small area, applying a 12 localized pressure. Which loads will remain constant, and which will differ depending on use and circumstances? Give examples of types of load which act on specific components or members. Say which components are stressed the most. Beams usually sag, deflecting downwards. In some cases deflection or flexure is upward - the beam hogs.
This is shown in the diagram of a simply supported beam. As a result of the bending force, the lower half of the beam is in tension and the upper half is in compression. These opposite stresses reach their maximum at the upper and lower surfaces of the beam, and progressively decrease to zero at the neutral axis - an imaginary line along the centre of the beam which is free from stress.
When vertical members can no longer resist a load they either crush or buckle. Can you find the mistake? I also thought the steel always went at the bottom of an RC beam because that's the part that's in tension, whereas the top of the beam is free from stress. But if that 's the case , when you see reinforcement being fixed in big RC beams, why are there bars both at the bottom and at the top? Look at A and B opposite and When a beam is subjected to But the top part is not 'free from stress' , as you suggest.
It's in Only the horizontal centreline of the beam- a zone called the It's also important to be clear about the strengths of concrete and steel. You're right that concrete is poor at resisting But steel is much stronger than concrete, not just in So steel is often put in the tops of beams in cases where the beam is subjected to high levels of compression, meaning that the concrete requires reinforcing to prevent it from Another possible reason for a beam having steel in the top is to take tension.
Why would you get tension in the top of a beam? It's true that most beams want to But in some structures, there are beams or parts of beams that want to How would the different components or members deform or fail if they were not adequately designed, or if they were overstressed? J Structural mechanics - Statically determinate structures When a structural member- that is, part of a structure- is loaded in a certain direction, the load will cause a reaction.
This means that another force, equal to the load, will act in the opposite direction. The reaction will counteract resist the load and stop the member from moving. When the loads and reactions acting on a member are equal, we say it is in equilibrium.
Structures that are designed not to move - to stay in equilibrium- are called statically determinate structures. Note: See Appendix Von page for the names of specific structural members. To calculate the result of these different component forces, an engineer can calculate a resultant force or resultant. This is a resultant force with a magnitude and direction equal to all component the component forces together.
This acts vertically downwards see Unit 9. Gravity is exerted on every atom of an object. However, to simplify their calculations, engineers assume that gravity is exerted on one imaginary point called the centre of gravity.
Depending on the shape of the object, this point may be inside the object's cross-sectional area, or outside it see the diagrams below. Examples are bicycle frames and steel-frame buildings. Patients, hurt in a car accident, are treated in a hospital.
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